Mexican Revolution

The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) was a complex, multifaceted civil war that fundamentally transformed Mexico and became a symbol of popular resistance against authoritarianism worldwide. Beginning as a political revolt against the thirty-year dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz, it evolved into a social revolution that addressed land reform, workers’ rights, and national sovereignty.

Background: The Porfiriato Era

Porfirio Díaz ruled Mexico from 1876 to 1911, implementing policies that modernized infrastructure while concentrating wealth among foreign investors and Mexican elites. His “Porfiriato” era brought railways, telegraphs, and foreign investment, but also created massive inequality:

• Land concentration: Large haciendas controlled by wealthy families displaced indigenous communities
• Foreign exploitation: American and European companies extracted Mexican resources with minimal local benefit
• Political repression: Opposition leaders faced imprisonment, exile, or assassination
• Cultural suppression: Indigenous languages and traditions were actively discouraged

By 1910, 1% of the population owned 85% of the land, while most Mexicans lived in poverty despite the country’s apparent prosperity.

The Spark: Francisco I. Madero’s Challenge

Francisco I. Madero, a wealthy landowner educated in the United States, challenged Díaz in the 1910 presidential election on a platform of political democracy and constitutional reform. When Díaz rigged the election and imprisoned Madero, the revolution began.

Madero’s “Plan of San Luis Potosí” called for armed resistance to restore constitutional government. The response was immediate and overwhelming, as decades of pent-up frustration erupted across Mexico.

Revolutionary Leaders and Factions

The revolution produced legendary figures whose diverse goals created both the movement’s strength and its internal conflicts:

Emiliano Zapata led indigenous farmers in Morelos state, fighting for “Tierra y Libertad” (Land and Liberty). His “Plan of Ayala” demanded immediate land redistribution and remains one of history’s most radical agrarian reform programs.

Pancho Villa commanded popular armies in northern Mexico, combining brilliant military tactics with Robin Hood-style raids against the wealthy. His cross-border attack on Columbus, New Mexico, prompted U.S. military intervention.

Venustiano Carranza emerged as the “First Chief” of the Constitutionalist movement, representing moderate middle-class interests focused on political rather than social revolution.

Álvaro Obregón proved the most politically astute leader, eventually consolidating power and beginning Mexico’s institutional revolutionary government.

Key Battles and Turning Points

The Decena Trágica (Ten Tragic Days, 1913): A military coup overthrew and murdered Madero, radicalizing the revolution and fragmenting it into competing factions.

Battle of Celaya (1915): Obregón’s forces decisively defeated Villa’s cavalry charges using modern defensive tactics, demonstrating how the revolution adapted contemporary military technology.

Constitutional Convention of 1917: Revolutionary factions gathered in Querétaro to create a new constitution that included radical provisions for land reform, workers’ rights, and national resource control.

International Dimensions

The revolution occurred during World War I, complicating international relations as foreign powers sought to influence Mexican politics for strategic advantage.

U.S. Intervention: President Woodrow Wilson sent troops to occupy Veracruz (1914) and later launched a punitive expedition against Villa (1916-1917), inflaming Mexican nationalism.

German Intrigue: The famous “Zimmermann Telegram” proposed a German-Mexican alliance against the United States, contributing to American entry into World War I.

Refugee Crisis: Violence displaced over one million Mexicans, many fleeing to the United States and creating lasting Mexican-American communities.

Social and Cultural Impact

The revolution unleashed unprecedented social mobility and cultural creativity that transformed Mexican identity:

Women’s Participation: “Soldaderas” fought alongside men, challenged traditional gender roles, and gained political consciousness that influenced later feminist movements.

Indigenous Rights: Revolutionary rhetoric recognized indigenous contributions to Mexican civilization, though practical gains remained limited.

Cultural Renaissance: The revolution inspired Mexican muralism, literature, and music that celebrated popular culture and indigenous heritage while critiquing social inequality.

Frida Kahlo, born in 1907, grew up during the revolution and later claimed to be born in 1910 to identify with this transformative period. Her art reflected the revolution’s themes of cultural identity, social justice, and national sovereignty.

The Constitution of 1917

Mexico’s revolutionary constitution was among the world’s most progressive, establishing principles that influenced global social movements:

Article 27: Declared national ownership of subsoil resources and authorized land redistribution Article 123: Guaranteed workers’ rights including eight-hour workdays, minimum wages, and collective bargaining Article 3: Mandated secular, free public education

These provisions made Mexico a laboratory for social democracy and inspired revolutionaries worldwide.

Consolidation and Legacy

The revolution officially ended in 1920 with Obregón’s presidency, but its goals required decades to implement. The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) governed Mexico for seventy years, claiming revolutionary legitimacy while often betraying revolutionary ideals.

Land Reform: Over 100 million acres were redistributed, though corruption and inefficiency limited success Labor Rights: Mexico developed strong unions and labor protections that became models for developing nations Cultural Identity: The revolution created modern Mexican nationalism that balanced indigenous heritage with European influences

Global Influence

The Mexican Revolution demonstrated that popular movements could overthrow entrenched dictatorships and implement radical social reforms. It influenced:

• Chinese Revolution: Communist leaders studied Mexican land reform strategies
• Russian Revolution: Bolsheviks saw parallels in peasant-based revolutionary movements
• Latin American Movements: From Nicaragua to Cuba, revolutionaries invoked Mexican precedents
• Anti-Colonial Struggles: African and Asian independence movements drew inspiration from Mexican nationalism

The revolution proved that “backward” agricultural societies could modernize through popular participation rather than elite-directed development, challenging contemporary assumptions about progress and civilization.

Primary Sources and Research

Archives and Collections

• Archivo General de la Nación: Mexico’s national archives with revolutionary documents
• Benson Latin American Collection: University of Texas extensive Mexican materials
• Library of Congress: Photographs and documents from the revolutionary period

Contemporary Accounts

• Revolutionary newspapers: El Demócrata, El Universal, and regional publications
• Foreign correspondent reports: John Reed’s “Insurgent Mexico” and other firsthand accounts
• Oral histories: Collected testimonies from revolution participants and witnesses